Linguistic Diversity in Guatemala: Living Proof of Resilience and Resistance
By Mimi Urízar-Ávila
In spite of centuries of oppression and genocide, the indigenous peoples of Guatemala, along with their various linguistic heritages, have survived in the face of Spanish dominance. Social and political discrimination continues throughout Latin America against indigenous populations and their languages, census data along with various studies reflect an undeniable disparity between indigenous and non-indigenous people when it comes to healthcare, employment, income, and education, even more so in the cases of indigenous women (Elías 2020). However, indigenous peoples have continued to be inventive and strong in their fight for rights and prosperity, preserving their patrimony specifically through mediums such as language. In most settings in North America, indigenous language survival is quite difficult, given indigenous people’s minority status (1.5% of pop.), the limited indigenous language-only spaces that exist and the lack of state/federal resources in indigenous languages. Latin America’s high indigenous populations are able to give them strength in numbers, even when they are continuously treated as a minority population in terms of rights and representation. Guatemala in particular boasts one of the largest indigenous populations in the Americas, with the 2018 Census reporting 43.75% of the population as indigenous (either Maya, Xinka, or Garífuna). While colonial violence has undeniably brought forth Spanish as the official language of the country, the Maya, Xinka, and Garífuna's persevering prominence in Guatemala’s population and heritage along with indigenous fights for representation have created space for their culture and languages in official documents, school curriculums, and media.
To this day, Guatemala continues to host 24 different language communities other than Spanish; Xinka, Garífuna, and 22 different Mayan languages: Achi, Akateko, Awakateko, Chalchiteko, Chorti’, Chuj, Itza, Ixil, Jakateko/Popti, Qánjob’al, Kaqchikel, K’iche’, Mam, Mopan, Poqomam, Poqomchi, Q’eqchi’, Sakapulteko, Sipakapense, Tektiteko, Tz’utujil, and Uspanteko. Mayan languages predominate, given that the Mayan Empire occupied most of the country in precolonial times. Each language inhabits specific regions of the country within their respective speaker and ethnic communities, encapsulating several dialects, specific traditions and their own diasporas within Mexico and the U.S..
Non-Maya Languages of Guatemala
Xinka, a language from the Xinkan family, has its own cosmovision and linguistic framework separate from that of the Maya and the Garífuna. The Xinkan people are concentrated along the Southern border of Guatemala, between the Pacific Ocean and El Salvador. Xinka is spoken within the departments of Santa Rosa, Jutiapa, Jalapa, parts of Escuintla, El Progreso, Zacapa, parts of Chiquimula within the department of Guatemala and part of the department of Mazatenango. It is thought to have about 100 maternal speakers in Guatemala, with speakership having dropped dramatically as a result of the Spanish conquest and resulting pushes for acculturation. However, Xinkan-driven initiatives for revitalizing Xinka and growing their speaker community have emerged and grown within recent decades.
Listen to and learn more about Xinka
Garífuna, another language with its own separate philosophical and linguistic framework, is from the Arahuaca language family, specifically the Caribeña branch. The language is from the Garífuna people, an African-Carib ethnicity that emerged in Saint Vincent and Dominica that was then forcibly displaced to Central America in the mid-19th century. Garífuna is spoken by a little under 200,000 people in Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, and parts of the U.S. as a result of immigration. In Guatemala it is spoken in the Izabal region by about 5-6,000 maternal speakers.
Listen to and learn more about Garífuna
Maya Languages of Guatemala
The Maya languages of Guatemala all trace back to the original Protomaya of the Mayan Empire. The various resulting Maya languages were all influenced by Ch’ol to some degree, as well as non-Mayan neighboring languages, given that the Ch’ol branch speakers were the “principal bearers of Mayan civilization” (Campbell 1998). Even today, the Ch’ol languages are the most conservative and the closest contemporary Maya languages to Classical Maya.
The Maya languages are broken down into several different branches, the first being the Huastecan branch, encapsulating now dormant languages Huastec and Chicomuceltec. The second branch, Yucatec, includes Mopan and Itzáj which are considered the only Yucateca languages with speaker communities in Guatemala. The next branch encapsulates three sub branches: Greater Tzeltalan (Ch’ol-Tzeltal), Greater Q’anjob’al, and Eastern Mayan (K’iche’-Mam). Greater Tzeltalan can be broken down into two branches: Ch’ol and Tzeltal. Two of the Ch’ol languages have speaker communities in Guatemala, Ch’ol and Ch’ortí. Greater Q’anjob’al also has two sub-branches, Q’anjob’al and Chuj. Within the Q'anjob'al sub-branch, Q’anjob’al, Akateko, and Jakalteko/Popti have speaker communities in Guatemala. Within the Chuj sub-branch, Chuj has a speaker community in Guatemala. The Eastern Maya sub-branch has two of its own sub-branches: K’iche’ and Mam. All of the languages of both the K’iche’ and the Mam sub-branches have speaker communities in Guatemala. The K’iche’ sub-branch is composed of Achi, K’iche’, Kaqchikel, Tz’utujil, Sakapulteko, Sipakapense, Poqomam, Poqomchi’, Uspanteko, and Q’eqchi. The Mam sub-branch is composed of Mam, Chalchiteko, Tektiteko, Awakateko, and Ixil.
Achi (also known as Achi’), from the K’iche’ branch, and is closely related to the K’iche’ language. It is spoken in 5 of the municipalities within the department of Baja Verapaz, as well as in Alta Verapaz, El Progreso, and El Quiché. In Guatemala it is estimated to have around 80-90,00 speakers in Guatemala. There are two distinct dialects of Achi: Rabinal and Cubulco, which get their names from the areas in which they are spoken. Achi is taught in primary schools of its speaker communities as well as used in radio and TV. There is a standardized Achi that has a written dictionary and grammar.
Listen to and learn more about Achi
Akateko (also known as Akateko, Acatec, Acateco, Conob, Kanjobal, Q’anjob’al, San Miguel Acatán Kanjobal, Western Kanjobal, Western Q’anjob’al or Kuti’), is a language from the Q’anjob’al branch with an estimated 40-50,000 speakers in Guatemala, spoken in 5 municipalities within the department of Huehuetenango. There is also a significant Akateko-speaking diaspora that lives in Los Angeles, USA. Linguists had categorized Akateko as a dialect of Q’anjob’al up until fifty years ago, when they realized that their grammars differed significantly. Akateko is taught in primary schools within its speaker communities. There is a standardized Akateko that has a written dictionary and grammar.
Listen to and learn more about Akateko
Awakateko (also known as Awakatek, Awakateko, Aguacatec, Aguacateca, Aguateca, Awaketeko, Awaketeco, Aguacatan Maya, Kayol, or Qa’yol), is a language from the Mam branch, with an estimated 18,000 speaker in Guatemala, specifically within the department of Huehuetenango in the municipalities of Huehuetenango and Aguacatán. Its native name is Qa’yol and speakers are called Qatanum.
Listen to and learn more about Awakateko
Ch’ol (also known as Chol, Lak t’an, or Lak ty’a), a member of the Ch’ol branch, is closely related to another Ch’ol language, Ch’orti’. As mentioned earlier, it is closely related to Classical Maya due to its linguistically conservative nature. It has around 200,00 speakers, concentrated within the Mexican states of Chiapas and Campeche, in Guatemala it is spoken along the northern border of the country. In Guatemala, Ch’ol is used in radio shows in its speaker communities as well as in curriculum in some primary schools.
Listen to and learn more about Ch’ol
Ch’orti’ (also known as Chorti or Ch’orti’ Maya), another member of the Ch’ol branch, with approx. 30,000 speakers in Guatemala, has speaker communities in five municipalities within two different departments: Chiquimula and Zacapa. Within these two departments, it is found to be mainly spoken within Jocotán and Camotán in the Chiquimula department in Guatemala.
Listen to and learn more about Ch’orti’
Chalchiteko, a language from the Mam branch, has approximately 30,000 speakers in Guatemala. It is spoken by the Chalchiteko people, who predominantly reside in the municipality of Aguacatán within the department of Huehuetenango.
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Chuj, a language from the Q’anjob’al branch, is spoken in three municipalities within the Huehuetenango department. Chuj has approx. 40,000 speakers in Guatemala.
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Itzáj, a language from the Yucatec branch, is spoken in six municipalities within the department of El Petén. It is said to have about 1,000 speakers.
Listen to and learn more about Itzáj
Ixil, a member of the Mam branch, is spoken in San Juan Cotzal, Santa Maria Nebaj, and San Gaspar Chajul; three municipalities in the department of El Quiché in the Guatemalan highlands. Within these three departments, towns have their own dialects of Ixil which remain roughly mutually intelligible with each other. There are also speakers who have immigrated to the capital, Guatemala City, and the USA. It is estimated to have around around 70-140,000 speakers in Guatemala.
Listen to and learn more about Ixil
Jakalteko (also known as Jacalteco, Jab’xub’al, Jakaltek, or Popti), a language in the Q’anjob’al branch, with around 40,000 speakers in Guatemala. It is spoken in six municipalities in Huehuetenango but mainly Jacaltenango. There are two distinct dialects recognized, Eastern and Western, which orally, are pretty mutually intelligible but not orthographically (when written).
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Qánjob’al (also known as Conob, Eastern Kanjobal, Eastern Qanjobal, K’anjobal, Kanhobal, Kanjobal, Qanjobal or Santa Eulalia Kanjobal), the namesake of the Q’anjob’al Maya language branch, has around 80-140,000 speakers in Guatemala. It is also closely related to other Q’anjob’al languages such as Chuj, Jakalteko and Akateko. In the country, it is spoken in four municipalities within the department of Huehuetenango. According to the World Atlas of Language Structures Online, there are distinct Western and Easter varieties of Qánjob’al; the former being spoken closer to the border with Mexico and the latter being spoken more inland, closer to the neighboring departments of San Marcos and Quetzaltenango.
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Kaqchikel (also known as Kaqchiquel, Cakchiquel, Cakchiquiel, or Kaqchikel Ch'ab'äl), with around half a million speakers, is one of the most widely spoken Maya languages in Guatemala. Kaqchikel is from the large K’iche’ language branch, closely related to its K’iche’ relatives K’iche’ and Tz’utujil. It is spoken within 54 municipalities across seven different departments; within one municipality of Baja Verapaz, in 16 different municipalities of Chimaltenango, one municipality in Escuintla, seven in Guatemala, fourteen municipalities in Sacatepéquez, eleven municipalities in Sololá, and four municipalities in Suchitepéquez. Kaqchikel has five distinct varieties: Central, Eastern, Western, Southwestern, Southern.
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K’iche’ (also known as Quiché or Qatzijob’al), from the K’iche’ branch of Protomaya, has around a million speakers in Guatemala, making it the Maya language with the largest speaker community in the country. It is spoken in 65 municipalities across seven different departments, within 19 municipalities of El Quiché, two municipalities in Huehuetenango, 12 municipalities in Quetzaltenango, 10 municipalities in Retalhuleu, 7 municipalities in Sololá, 18 municipalities in Suchitepéquez, 8 municipalities in Totonicapán, one municipality in San Marcos and a part of Tecpán (Pacacay) in Chimaltenango. Ki’che’ is a national language of Guatemala, but it is not recognized as an offical language. The several dialects of K’iche’ are different enough form each other to be considered their own languages, the most widely spoken of these being Central K’iche’. Central K’iche’ is taught in schools and widely used in media of speaker communities. Several K’iche’ orthographies exist; among them there is one developed by the Proyecto Lingüístico Francisco Marroquín, another by the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), one by the Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala (ALMG), and the classical orthography develped by Father Francisco Ximénez which was used in the Popol Vuh/Popol Wuj (a collection of stories of the Post Classic K'iche' kingdom).
Listen to and learn more about K’iche’
Mam (also known as Qyol Mam), from the Mam language branch, like Kaqchikel has around half a million speakers in Guatemala. It is spoken in 61 different municipalities across three departments; 20 in Huehuetenango, 12 in Quetzaltenango, and 29 in San Marcos. Three main varieties exist: Northern Mam (spoken in Huehuetenango), Southern Mam (spoken in Quetzaltenango) and Central Mam (spoken in San Marcos). Each variety has its own sub-dialects with a fair amount of variation, yet they all remain basically mutually intelligible.
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Mopan (also known as Mopán Maya, Mopane or Maya Mopán), is a member of the Yucateca language branch. With around 2,000 speakers, it is spoken across four municipalities in El Petén department, most notably in the towns of San Luis, Poptún, Melchor de Mencos, and Dolores. A mainly spoken language, different grammar and spelling systems have been developed for Mopan since colonial times, an orthography created by the Academia de las Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala is included in these.
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Poqomam, from the K’iche’ language branch, has approximately 30,000 speakers in Guatemala. Speaker communities span across six municipalities across three departments: two in Guatemala, three in Jalapa, and one in Escuintla.
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Poqomchi, a member of the K’iche’ language branch, with roughly 90-100,000 speakers in Guatemala. Speaker communities are spread throughout seven different municipalities in four different departments: five in Alta Verapaz, one in Baja Verapaz, and one in El Quiché.
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Q’eqchi’ (also known as Kekchi), from the K’iche’ branch, with over half a million maternal speakers. It is spoken in 21 municipalities across five departments: ten within Cobán, 4 within Petén, two in El Quiché, and three in Izabal, and in one municipality within the department of Belice. Several orthographies have been developed for Q'eqchi', two of which predominate: one developed in the 1950s and 1960s by researchers from the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL). This orthography served to produce a Q'eqchi' translation of the Bible and several other texts. It remains popular, even though it is no longer considered standard. More recently, orthography was developed in the 1980s and 1990s by the Proyecto Lingüístico Francisco Marroquín. This orthography has become the standard written form of Q'eqchi' in the country.
Listen to and learn more about Q’eqchi’
Sakapulteko (also known as Sacapulas K’iche’, Sacapulteco or Qač’ab’a:l ), a K’iche’ language, has approximately 9,700 speakers, all concentrated predominantly within the municipality of Sacapulas in the department of Quiché in central Guatemala. In written form, as with many of the standardized grammars of Maya languages taught today, it uses the Latin alphabet. It also has a spelling system based partly on Spanish.
Listen to and learn more about Sakapulteko
Sipakapense, another K’iche’ branch member, has around 8,000 speakers in Guatemala. Speakers are based in Sipacapa within the department of San Marcos.
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Tektiteko, a member of the Mam language branch, has an estimated 2,200 speakers in Guatemala. It is spoken mainly within Huehuetenango, in the municipalities of Culico and Tectitán near the border with Mexico.
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Tz’utujil, from the K’iche’ branch, has around 80-90,000 speakers. Spoken in 8 municipalities across two departments, 2 in Suchitepéquez and 6 in Sololá, it divides into two distinct dialects: Eastern and Western. It is closely related to two other K’iche’ branch members, K’iche’ and Kaqchikel. The standard orthography for the Tz'utujil was developed by the Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala.
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Uspanteko, a member of the K’iche’ language branch, with around 3,000 speakers. This language is spoken in Uspantán within the department of El Quiché.
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Considering Frameworks
When discussing indigenous languages, their speakers, and their survival, it is crucial that we reckon with and combat the far-reaching, ongoing oppression that they undergo. It is just as vital that we recognize and support indigenous peoples who have accomplished the feat of survival, growth and the preservation of their language in the face of such extreme and insidious colonial efforts against them. Language revival and growth relies on the empowerment of indigenous people and allocating them the social, economic and political power to lead their communities to where they want to be.
The speakers of Maya languages are diverse in their abilities and relationships to language, as with any; whether they be mono or multilingual, heritage speakers (people who have learned a minority language through family/social input, with a hegemonic language playing a more dominant role), or language learners; they are able to participate in and perpetuate indigenous language, its oral history, and the philosophical frameworks that are embedded in them. We can celebrate the fact that a language is an ever-changing yet persevering lived experience that gives their communities strength and legacy—it is an embodied, human, and sacred phenomena we can’t ever place a price or expiration date on.
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